The relationship between sportswashing and image repair constitutes a central theme in the analysis of Qatar’s hosting of the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Sportswashing, defined as a nation’s deliberate use of mega-sporting events to bolster its international image and deflect criticism , hinges on the assumption that association with the prestige of global athletics fosters positive perceptions. Qatar, facing scrutiny for its human rights record, particularly concerning migrant worker welfare, likely viewed the World Cup as a platform for image repair (Weaver et al., 2020).
Theoretically, sportswashing tactics can influence image repair through various mechanisms. Extensive positive media coverage surrounding the World Cup could potentially eclipse negative narratives about Qatar’s labor practices (Geldner, 2014). The spectacle and grandeur of the event itself might serve as a distraction, diverting public attention from internal issues (Wanhainen, 2018). Furthermore, Qatar could leverage the World Cup to enhance its public diplomacy efforts, fostering a more favorable international image through strategic communication (Seo & Kim, 2009).
Sportswashing and Image Repair: A Case Study of Nigerian Public Response to Qatar: Part 1
However, the efficacy of sportswashing in achieving lasting image repair remains a subject of debate (Schaefer & Leigh, 2017). Critics argue that such attempts can backfire, generating increased scrutiny and highlighting underlying human rights concerns (Boykoff, 2014). The following section will delve into the specific tactics employed by Qatar in the lead-up to and during the 2022 World Cup to assess their effectiveness in achieving the nation’s image repair goals.
This study delves into Image Repair theory, which serves as the theoretical framework for understanding and exploring Sportswashing. Image Repair theory, rooted in communication, public relations and global/domestic politics, seeks to elucidate the strategies and mechanisms employed by entities to repair and manage their damaged reputation in the face of negative events or perceptions.
Introduced by William Benoit, image restoration theory (also known as image repair theory) outlines strategies that can be used to restore one’s image in an event where reputation has been damaged, or have been accused of wrongdoing, Benoit (1994). Image restoration theory can be applied as an approach for understanding both personal and organizational, as well as crisis situations even on a state level. It is a component of crisis communication, which is a subspecialty of public relations. Its purpose is to protect an individual, company, or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation.
In the context of Sportswashing, this theory could be used to explore how Qatar is using Sportswashing initiatives to improve its international image and address criticisms related to issues such as human rights abuses. Image restoration theory is a well-established theoretical framework that has been used to explain how organizations or individuals can repair their image after experiencing reputational damage, and in recent years, this theory has been applied to the phenomenon of Sportswashing, in which countries or organizations use sporting events to improve their international image and address criticisms related to issues such as human rights abuses, corruption, or political oppression.
This study delves into how image restoration theory can help comprehend and explain the impact of Sportswashing on the perception of Qatar among Nigerians. One of the key components of image restoration theory is the concept of “image repair strategies,” which refer to the various tactics those organizations or individuals can use to address a negative reputation, Boykoff (2022).
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In the context of Sportswashing, these strategies might include sponsoring major sporting events, investing in sports infrastructure, or promoting sports tourism, and as described by Fisher (1970), one of the goals of communication is “purification, concerned with correcting an image”, for example, Qatar has been criticized for its treatment of migrant workers, who often work in dangerous or exploitative conditions, and to address these criticisms, the country has used Sportswashing initiatives such as the World Cup to showcase its modern infrastructure, diverse culture, and commitment to sports development, (Millward, 2017).
By using these strategies, Qatar hopes to repair its image and improve its standing in the international community, Benoit 2014 posits that rhetoric’s and communication are goal driven, meaning that there is often a goal behind every communication, something it aims to achieve. Image repair strategies can be organized into five broad categories: denial, evading responsibility, reducing offensiveness, corrective action, and mortification.
Research has shown that the effectiveness of image repair strategies can depend on various factors, including the severity of the reputational damage, the credibility of the spokesperson, and the alignment between the message and the organization’s values, and this can be applied in the context of Sportswashing, (Holtzhausen, & Roberts, 2009), as these factors play a role in conveying a positive cultural, political, and social construct in which sporting events take place.
For example, some Nigerians may view Qatar’s use of Sportswashing as a cynical attempt to distract from its human rights abuses or political oppression, while others may see it as a positive step towards greater international engagement and cooperation. Another important aspect of image restoration theory is the concept of “perceived sincerity,” which refers to the extent to which audiences believe that the organization is genuinely committed to addressing the issues that led to the reputational damage (Yoon, Gürhan-Canli, & Schwarz, 2006).
In the context of Sportswashing, perceived sincerity may be influenced by factors such as the transparency of the organization’s actions, the credibility of its leaders, and the effectiveness of its policies. For example, if Qatar is seen as taking concrete steps to address issues such as worker rights or environmental sustainability, Nigerians may be more likely to view its Sportswashing initiatives as a legitimate attempt to improve its international image.
Overall, image restoration theory provides a useful theoretical framework for understanding the impact of Sportswashing in laundering Qatar’s image to Nigerians and the broader global community. By examining the various image repair strategies used by Qatar and their effectiveness in addressing reputational damage, researchers can gain insights into how Sportswashing initiatives can influence public opinion and shape international perceptions.
However, it is important to protect the naivety of persons, “If we believe the apology is sincere, we may choose to pardon the wrongful act” (Benoit, 2014, p. 26–27), so in order for us a society, whether you love sport or not, theories such as this broaden our understanding of the complex cultural, political, and social contexts in which sporting events take place, as well as the potential moral and human damages of image restoration strategies in camouflaging systemic issues such as human rights abuses or political oppression.
The growing significance of sports in international relations, particularly football’s global reach, has led to its exploitation for national image management. This phenomenon, termed “sportswashing,” involves using prestigious sporting events to deflect criticism and cultivate a more positive international image. Image repair theory provides a valuable framework for understanding these efforts. It posits that entities use various communication strategies to address negative perceptions (Benoit, 1994).
Historical examples, such as the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany, illustrate the longstanding practice of sportswashing (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2023). The case of Qatar’s hosting of the 2022 World Cup exemplifies the contemporary relevance of sportswashing. Facing scrutiny for its human rights record, particularly concerning migrant worker welfare, Qatar aimed to leverage the World Cup for image repair (Weaver et al., 2020).
The effectiveness of sportswashing in achieving lasting image repair remains a subject of debate (Schaefer & Leigh, 2017). While positive media coverage and the event’s spectacle might serve as distractions (Geldner, 2014; Wanhainen, 2018), critics argue that such attempts can backfire, generating increased scrutiny (Boykoff, 2014). The review of literature delved deeper into the theoretical framework and explored the specific tactics employed by Qatar to assess their effectiveness in achieving image repair.
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The study also emphasised upon the concept of Sportswashing and its relation to Soft power as tool for political propaganda on a scale, highlighting the dangers and mechanisms through which it exists and expands, and its implications on global politics.
For this study, the source of data is primarily from primary sources. The primary source of data for this study is an online questionnaire administered to the selected sample of respondents. The questionnaire was designed to elicit responses directly from participants regarding their perceptions of Qatar’s sportswashing initiatives. By collecting firsthand information from respondents, primary data provide valuable insights into the attitudes, opinions, and experiences of individuals within the target population.
This section analyzes the responses to the survey questions to address the research objectives outlined in the introduction.
Addressing the first research question: To what extent were Nigerians aware of Qatar’s sports-related initiatives, particularly those connected to the 2022 World Cup? Survey responses are analyzed to gauge awareness about Qatar’s sportswashing efforts. Here’s a breakdown: A total of 234 (59.1%) respondents indicated awareness of Qatar’s sports-related initiatives, particularly those connected to the 2022 World Cup. This suggests a significant portion of the surveyed Nigerians were aware of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts.
Addressing the second research question: Did these sportswashing efforts influence Nigerians’ perceptions of Qatar, and if so, to what extent?
The study analyzed survey responses to understand the impact of sportswashing on perceptions. Here’s a breakdown: Over half the respondents (204, 51.5%) believed Qatar’s sports initiatives positively influenced their perception of the country. A significant portion (128, 32.3%) reported a neutral effect on their perception. Only a minority (64, 16.2%) reported a negative change in perception due to Qatar’s sportswashing efforts.
Addressing the third research question: What were the primary sources of information about Qatar’s sports activities, and how did Nigerians perceive the media coverage?
We analyzed the survey responses to understand media influence on perceptions: The interviews revealed a nuanced spectrum of opinions among Nigerian sports professionals regarding Qatar’s Sportswashing endeavors. All scouts interviewed displayed a heightened awareness of Qatar’s amplified player acquisition efforts and investments in scouting networks. However, their perspectives diverged on the impact of these developments.
Respondent 2, a scout, downplayed the media’s influence on their scouting practices, stating, “We prioritize raw talent and potential regardless of the headlines.” However, concerns regarding long-term sustainability were voiced by Respondent 7, who remarked, “There might be opportunities for knowledge sharing and joint scouting ventures between Nigeria and Qatar.”
The coaches interviewed demonstrated awareness of Qatar’s World Cup hosting and its potential impact on player recruitment strategies. Their reactions, however, were mixed. Respondent 1, a head coach known for his emphasis on youth development, expressed concern, stating, “The focus on mega-events shouldn’t overshadow the need to invest in grassroots programs that nurture young Nigerian talent.”
However, Respondent 3, coach with experience in international competitions, offered a contrasting perspective, highlighting the potential for knowledge exchange. “There’s always something to learn,” he remarked, “Collaboration with Qatari coaches on training methodologies could be beneficial.” he also, criticized the media’s portrayal, stating, “The hype surrounding sportswashing can be distracting. Our focus remains on winning matches.”
This group exhibited extensive knowledge of Qatar’s sportswashing campaigns and the associated media narratives. Their perspectives were often critical, highlighting potential long-term social and economic consequences, including concerns about human rights abuses. Respondent 8, a veteran sports journalist, emphasized the challenges of balanced reporting, stating, “We walk a tightrope between in-depth analysis and commercial interests.”
The crucial role of sports journalists and analysts in providing balanced and critical perspectives on Sportswashing was unequivocally emphasized by Respondent 9, a football analyst, who remarked, “It’s our responsibility to shed light on the complexities beyond the glitz and glamour.”
These interviewees displayed a strong understanding of the narratives surrounding Qatar’s sportswashing efforts and their impact on global perception. They offered nuanced perspectives, acknowledging the potential benefits, such as infrastructure development, while simultaneously stressing the need to address human rights concerns. Respondent 6, a sportswriter, highlighted this complexity. “Sportswashing efforts can have both positive and negative consequences,” she noted. “It’s important to acknowledge both sides of the story.”
The challenges of crafting compelling narratives that extend beyond sensationalized headlines were also discussed. Respondent 10, another sportswriter passionate, expressed support for collaborative efforts, stating, “Joint writing projects or cultural exchange programs focused on sports narratives could foster a deeper understanding between Nigerians and Qataris.”
It’s important to acknowledge that this qualitative analysis is based on a limited sample of interviewees. Further research with a broader range of participants would provide a more comprehensive picture. Additionally, the subjective nature of qualitative data necessitates a focus on the themes and insights that emerged rather than attempting to generalize the findings to the entire Nigerian sports landscape.
The study examined how Nigerians perceive the impact of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts by combining interview data (qualitative) with survey results (quantitative). This combined approach aimed to see if these two methods painted a similar picture of public perception.
Both the interviews and surveys revealed a high level of awareness among Nigerians regarding Qatar’s recent focus on major sporting events. This aligns with previous research suggesting increased media coverage can heighten public awareness of such initiatives.
The survey data provided valuable insights into the prevalence of specific perceptions. For instance, a significant portion of respondents agreed that Qatar’s efforts have increased the visibility of Nigerian athletes on the global stage. Additionally, a notable percentage expressed concerns about the potential for inflated transfer fees due to these efforts.
The interviews, on the other hand, offered a deeper understanding of the reasoning behind these perceptions. Scouts, for instance, elaborated on their concerns about inflated transfer fees, highlighting potential long-term consequences for sustainable player development (quote from Scout 2). Similarly, head coaches provided contrasting viewpoints, with some expressing anxieties about prioritizing mega-events over grassroots programs while others saw opportunities for knowledge exchange (quotes from Coach 1 & 2).
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The findings suggest some convergence between the two methodologies. Both the interviews and questionnaires highlight an awareness of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts and their potential impact on various aspects of Nigerian football. However, the qualitative data provided by the interviews offered a richer understanding of the underlying concerns and potential benefits, enriching the quantitative findings.
For instance, while the questionnaires might reveal a percentage of respondents who believe Qatar’s efforts enhance Nigeria’s sporting reputation, the interviews with sports journalists (quote from Sports Journalist & Analyst 2) delve into the complexities of such narratives, highlighting the need for critical analysis beyond sensationalized headlines.
There are limitations to this research, of course. Similar to the limitations mentioned earlier about the interviews (sample size, subjectivity), the survey data analysis should also acknowledge its limitations. Additionally, it’s important to consider potential social desirability bias in questionnaire responses.
By employing a mixed methods approach, this research has provided a more nuanced understanding of how Nigerians perceive the impact of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts. The findings suggest a high level of awareness coupled with a range of perspectives, encompassing both potential benefits and concerns. The qualitative data enriched the quantitative analysis by offering deeper insights into the reasoning behind these perceptions.
Future research directions include longitudinal studies tracking evolving perceptions as Qatar’s efforts unfold. Additionally, investigating the influence of demographics on these perceptions could provide a more detailed understanding of the public discourse. Furthermore, incorporating ethnographic methods could offer an even richer understanding of the cultural and social contexts that shape Nigerians’ interpretations of these global sporting initiatives.
By employing a mixed methods approach and building upon these findings, future research can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of sportswashing and its impact on public perceptions in a globalized world.
This research has highlighted the complexities of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts and their influence on Nigerians’ perceptions. The findings highlight the need for a multi-pronged approach to counteracting these efforts and fostering informed public discourse.
Policymakers and media organizations have a critical role to play. Policymakers can establish frameworks that promote transparency and accountability in sports investments. This could involve requiring disclosures of funding sources and potential conflicts of interest. Media organizations, on the other hand, should strive for balanced and critical reporting on sportswashing initiatives.
Avoiding sensationalized headlines and delving deeper into the potential social, economic, and human rights implications associated with these efforts is crucial. By providing nuanced analyses, the media can empower citizens to make informed judgments about the true impact of such initiatives.
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Civil society organizations and international organizations can be instrumental in raising public awareness about the potential downsides of sportswashing. Educational initiatives and campaigns promoting media literacy can equip citizens with the tools to critically analyze sports-related narratives. These initiatives can help the public identify potential biases and hidden agendas within sportswashing campaigns. An informed citizenry is essential for fostering a more critical and balanced public discourse surrounding these global sporting events.
This study focused on young adults’ perceptions. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of sportswashing, further research is necessary. Exploring the long-term effects of sportswashing on public perception across different demographics is crucial. Investigating the influence of sportswashing on broader public opinion beyond sports itself would also provide valuable insights.
For example, research could examine how sportswashing efforts might impact public views on foreign policy or international relations. By examining these aspects, we can develop a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of sportswashing and its impact in a globalized world.
Additionally, during this research, Nigerian President, Bola Ahmed Tinubu went on an official visit to Qatar in order to establish a “cooperation agreement in the field of education; regulation of employment of workers with the Government of Qatar; establishment of a joint business council between the Qatar Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Nigerian Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines, and Agriculture; in addition to a cooperation agreement in the field of youths and sports” (Punch 2024).
This newly established relationship is indicative of the direct role that Qatar can play for Nigerian affairs in the global system, a relationship that may not have been without Sportswashing. Qatar has also had the unprecedented privilege to be awarded hosting rights to the Under-17 FIFA World Cup for four concurrent years (FIFA 2024).
This research delved into the complexities of Qatar’s sportswashing efforts and their impact on Nigerians’ perceptions. The findings urge a multi-faceted approach to counteract these efforts and cultivate informed public discourse. Both policymakers and media organizations have crucial roles. Policymakers can establish frameworks promoting transparency and accountability in sports investments.
This might involve requiring disclosures of funding sources and potential conflicts of interest. Media organizations, on the other hand, should strive for balanced and critical reporting on such initiatives. Avoiding sensational headlines is key, with a deeper focus on the potential social, economic, and human rights implications. By providing nuanced analyses, the media empowers citizens to make informed judgments about the true impact of these initiatives.
Civil society and international organizations can be instrumental in raising public awareness about the potential downsides of sportswashing. Educational initiatives and media literacy campaigns can equip citizens with the tools to critically analyze sports-related narratives. These initiatives can help the public identify potential biases and hidden agendas within sportswashing campaigns. An informed citizenry is essential for fostering a more critical and balanced public discourse surrounding these global sporting events.
This study focused on young adults’ perceptions. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of sportswashing’s multifaceted nature, further research is necessary. Exploring the long-term effects of sportswashing on public perception across different demographics is crucial.
Investigating the influence of sportswashing on broader public opinion beyond sports itself would also provide valuable insights. For example, research could examine how sportswashing efforts might impact public views on foreign policy or international relations. By examining these aspects, we can develop a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of sportswashing and its impact in a globalized world.
Comparative studies exploring how perceptions of Qatar differ across various demographics and social media platforms as well as In-depth qualitative research to understand the nuances of how Nigerians or perhaps even over countries perceive and evaluate information about Qatar’s sportswashing initiatives of Sportswashing in general, additionally, longitudinal studies to track the evolving effects of sportswashing on public perception over time.
By: @free__flowing
Featured Image: @GabFoligno / Getty Images
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